Anaximander Essay Example

Anaximander Essay Anaximander, a Milesian philosopher, was the first great influencer of Greek thought. He traveled, and presented his discoveries from the outside world to Greece. He is sometimes credited with the discovery of the gnomon, a type of sundial telling hours of the day, equinoxes, and solstices; however, it was most likely a transplanted invention from the Babylonians. He is also said to have constructed a celestial globe mapping the heavens. Anaximander can be considered the first geographer and although his maps suffered massive criticism from later philosophers, he completed a map of the world based on his own travels to Sparta and the Black Sea, and upon conversations with merchants and travelers. Anaximander also created a model of the universe using a geometric structure and basing measurements on multiples of three. He conjectured that the heavenly bodies were seen when fire showed through vents in the heavens. By using this single supposition, he was able to explain phenomena such as eclipses by a single occurrence: the blockage of heavenly vents. He can be considered the first metaphysician because he rationalized and hypothesized about the Aperion as the Arche. Unlike Thales, Anaximander speculated that the Aperion differed from the elementals and reasoned instead that since it was the fundamental source of all things and surrounded the heavens and worlds, it could not be any one of those things or possess their characteristics. This is why the earth does not move in space, because the Aperion has an equal relation to the extremes and there is no reason for it to move. According to Anaximander, the Aperion must be spatially unlimited because it environs the universe. As an unlimited material, if the Aperion possessed a definite set of characteristics, it would obliterate everything with opposing characteristics. It must perpetually be in motion for change to occur in the world. It is ageless and eternal, because if there was a time when the Aperion was not, then it must have come from something other than itself, and as the inspiration for the creation of all things, this would be impossible. We will write a custom essay sample on Anaximander specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Anaximander specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Anaximander specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Anaximander explains the existence of the world not through traditional divinities and mythology, but rather by elements separating off from the Aperion. He found explanations for the world that were logical and uncomplicated. Anaximander taught that either of any two opposites can overwhelm the other, but share equal influence, although they are constantly in conflict. When one gains greater power, it will eventually pay the penalty to the other, keeping the world in balance. Heraclitus was the dark, riddling philosopher who expounded the theories of eternal change. Heraclitus was very critical of past philosophers and peers. The former he condemned for valuing learning over insight, while the latter he denounced for being unreceptive to unfamiliar concepts, not caring for truth, misusing their senses and intelligence, and erratically following tradition and authority. Heraclitus was the first philosopher to connect human values to philosophy. He transcended physical theories in order to discover principled appliances and metaphysical fundamentals. He went beyond the Milesian philosophers study of the material foundation of the world to the rhythm of nature affecting the Logos. However, he did not believe, as Anaximander did, that opposites were in a universal unrest, but rather that they existed in a law like flux and transformational uniformity. For example, the sea water, which is most polluted for humans, but most pure for the sea creatures; it gives both death and life in different respects. He viewed conflict as a necessity in life, but not as an impediment to living. He stated that it is the inevitable law of nature for things that are hot to become cold and that since they are already hot, they cannot become hot. The potential for both extremes always exists within the same object. Heraclitus associated Logos with fire, the dramatic, violent, hot element of gradual change. However he also believed that fire, water, and earth were constantly changing into one another. This idea of constant motion of the elements reflects Anaximanders. He uses the example of a river: if the river stops flowing and changing it fails to remain a river, and becomes a lake. Just so, if the Kosmos ever stopped changing it would lose its identity and fail to exist as we know it. The existence of Logos keeps the world in order. Thus, he presents his idea of the Logos not only as elemental, but also relating to justice, law, and God. He criticized people for looking at the world as made of individual parts instead of looking at all the separate parts as they relate to the whole which they all come from. By fully grasping what the whole is, we can see the way individual things interact within it. Heraclitus put much emphasis on logic and relying upon the senses. He said that most people live in a private dream world, and while they are physically all in the same reality, they are not conscious of it. He disvalues things taught in favor of things learned for oneself through experience. He particularly valued knowledge gained through sight, but he warned that when the soul is barbaric, the persons reception will be skewed. The highest virtue that Heraclitus extols is that of understanding. Although only divinities can have complete insight into nature, is a virtue humans must work toward. He uses the Logos as fire to argue morals. Souls are made of fire, and to die is to be extinguished or become wet. He warns against drinking to excess because it moistens the soul; much the same, when a person is sick, it indicates that their soul is moist. Greeks believed it valiant to die in battle, with a fiery soul. Thus it was shameful to die of disease because the soul would remain impure. Heraclitus stated that the Logos was a wholesome cosmic fire and the fieriest soul was the wise soul. He warned that it was the individuals character and actions that determined his or her fate, rather than gods from any mystery religion. Parmenides was the first philosopher to combine the analytical logic with philosophy. He branched off from the theories of Anaximander, Heraclitus, and Pythagoras. Like Heraclitus, he emphasized the importance of learning the truth about existence and nature, except he believed the way to reach that understanding was through reason separate from the senses, because humans tend to deem whatever seems to be as unconditional reality. This principle led to forms of rationalism and influenced Platos writing. Expounding upon Pythagorean thought, Parmenides found explanations for the universe that were mathematical and logical. He also uses verse to present his philosophy, reiterating Greek tradition and thought. He plays up the images of chariots and wise steeds, referencing Achilles in Homers Iliad, he alludes to Hesiods work when describing Chaos, and although he doesnt use the term god, Parmenides employs Anaximanders Justice and opposition in his tale. In the poem, Parmenides presents three possibilities for reality and the state of the universe. The first way is to believe that everything is, the second is to believe that nothing is, and the third is to believe that everything is and is not. The way of Objective Truth is both unswerving and coherent, the Unthinkable Way is consistent but incoherent, and the way of Subjective Belief is incomprehensible and incoherent. (The first and second ways are both enlightened, but should not carry the same merit. ) Humans often fail to see the first way as feasible because they rely upon their senses. Parmenides argued that if something can be conceived, that on some level of existence it exists because it has properties that can be described. This is why the second way is incorrect. By talking about nothing, it is described with certain attributes and, itself, becomes something. There are benefits to the way of Subjective Belief, in looking at the universe and truth objectively. The fallacy comes when people on this path try to understand themselves or their immediate surroundings. The Kosmos does exist independently, but not to the omission of all other potential Kosmoi. The objective truth is that conceivably all Kosmoi are similarly existent, therefore Parmenides concludes that the Plenum is continuous, undivided, imperishable, timeless, motionless, and unchanging, which is utterly divergent from Heraclitus view of an ever-changing Aperion. Parmenides view of the world can be compared to a block of marble. It is possible to create anything out of that block until it is changed and one chunk is carved off. The possibility to create any number of designs is immediately eliminated. Therefore, since it is possible for every imaginable universe to exist, the Plenum can never change. It is also contingent on properties of time rather than space. Parmenides Plenum was made up from two opposites: fire which gives light and translucent, and night which is dark and dense. Much as Anaximander described it, Parmenides world was made from these two elements separating off in a type of vortex, and combining with each other; however they can never become one another. In Platos Meno, Socrates shows his idea of virtue and knowledge by questioning Meno, a high-class, educated man, and an uneducated slave. He begins speaking as if he knows nothing about virtue, and asks Meno to explain it to him. However, he quickly tears apart Menos confidence. He tries to discover what virtue is, because until one knows what something is, one cannot know its qualities, and it cannot be taught. Socrates eventually brings Meno to the conclusion that virtue is knowledge or temperance. Then Socrates defines teaching as remembering knowledge from previous lives. He questions a slave-boy in geometry much in the same style that he questioned Meno, first utterly bewildering him before leading him to the answer. The slave would have had no education, but was able to discover the truth by answering questions, and thus must have been remembering that particular truth. They determine that virtue is knowledge, and knowledge can be taught. Thus, divulging knowledge to a person is the same as divulging virtue. By teaching that virtue is beneficial, and supposing that a person would not choose to do something detrimental to them, then knowing that something is a virtue they will choose it, and since they are choosing virtue, they must be virtuous. Consequently, to teach virtue is simply to teach that virtue is knowledge. Therefore, Socrates teaches Meno virtue in the dialogue. However he contradicts this by saying that the slave discovered some true opinion, not knowledge, and Socrates did not teach him because he was not paid as teachers must be. Therefore virtue cannot be knowledge because virtue cannot be taught. He offers four ways in which humans may acquire virtue: teaching, practice, nature, or some alternative way. An alternative to virtue being knowledge is that it is true opinion, which cannot be taught. If it is not taught then it must be a divine gift.

Napleon and Wellington essays

Napleon and Wellington essays Napoleon Bonaparte and Arthur, Duke of Wellington The careers of Napoleon Bonaparte and Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of Wellington, contrasted in many different ways. The manner in which both rose to glory was quite dissimilar. Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Corsica on August 15, 1769 and was thought to be the most formidable military commander since Alexander the great. He was a bright, charismatic child of noble background. As a boy, he was described as good willed and generous. At nine, through his fathers influence, Napoleon went off to military school in Paris at the expense of King Louis XVI. It was here that it was discovered that he had and amazing brain capacity and was considered a genius, yet nobody could imagine his success and all of the dead bodies he left in his wake for the sake of peace. Wellesley, on the other hand, was born on May 1, 1769, in Dublin and was also of noble background. As an adult, Wellesley would rise to rule the British empire, but as a schoolboy his future looked grim and lacked the genius that Napoleon possessed. His situation became so desperate that he was sent to military school, where his metamorphosis was astonishing. He found that he enjoyed the army and needed it to establish a career in life. He was given the title 1st Duke of Wellington due to his military successes. In school, Napoleon was always the leader and could always win at games due to his strategies and his impeccability at outwitting the other team. He was attracted to the military for a number of reasons and he had secret weapons such as his extraordinary intelligence. The military schools of Napoleon and Wellesley never engaged in competition so they never met. Napoleon graduated military school in 1785, at the age of 16, and joined the artillery as a second lieutenant. He studied firepower and trained in the artillery, which would help Napoleon become a genius in this field. Meanwhile, in 1787,...

Learning English Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Learning English - Essay Example It is necessary for English learners to become perfect speakers of the language. Regardless of the fact that majority of these learners would be interacting with other second language speakers, learning perfect English is still a crucial aspect of the general learning process. It is necessary for English learners to learn perfect English in order to establish a strong baseline for their English learning, including the grammar, spelling, pronunciation, syntax, and proper usage of the words in a sentence (Sweeney, 2003). Knowing the proper usages of English in a sentence helps reduce communication barriers among speakers and learners (Seagert, 2007). In the current age of cell phones and short messaging services where words are often shortened to fit limited characters in text messages, the importance of learning perfect English has become more important than ever. Without instructions for learning perfect English, improper grammar and spelling would likely become the norm which would cause the deterioration of the English language (Freudenberg, 2009). Moreover, this improper English language would also infiltrate the English of secondary speakers. As their English-speaking counterparts are learning imperfect English, they too would be learning imperfect English. In the end, the quality of the language would be reduced. With more transactions being carried out with secondary English speakers, the burden of learning how to speak perfect English must not be eased or reduced. (Segaert, 2007). The importance of learning perfect English is based on the demands of the English language itself, not with those who would eventually use it (Pakenham, 2004). Moreover, secondary English speakers would also benefit well from the perfect English which is used in communicating with them. The foundation of their English communication has to hinge on the proper application of the English language. Adjustments made on the English language can then be made to incorporate the usage of other foreign words (Cleary, 2004). Throughout the years, the English language has adapted these foreign words into its vocabulary, but the essence and the structure of the English language has not been changed to accommodate a structure more appealing to the secondary English speaker. And this has helped preserve the structure and form of the English language (Cleary, 2004). It is easy to argue that it is unnecessary to learn perfect English because many people speak it only as a secondary language (Kubota, 2009). They point out that not learning perfect English would make the language more relatable to the secondary English speakers; in other words, English would have a more universal appeal if people would not have to pay attention to speaking it perfectly (Kubotam 2009). It may also be important to note that the pressure of knowing and learning perfect English may discriminate against the secondary English speakers who often speak heavily-accented imperfect English (Hojena and Flege, 2006). These arguments however cannot be used as an excuse not to learn perfect

Effective communications with people from diverse backgrounds .Discuss Term Paper

Effective communications with people from diverse backgrounds .Discuss - Term Paper Example In this paper, I will be sharing my personal clinical experience that involved initiating assertive and therapeutic communication to a 35-year-old female patient with Down syndrome. To start with, it shall be emphasized that diversity does not just focuses on the racial or cultural background of individuals. Diversity is â€Å"a condition of having or being composed of differing elements (variety); especially the inclusion of different types of people in a group or organization† (Merriam-Webster 2011). Hence, patient diversity is the full range of human similarities and differences in group affiliation including gender, race/ethnicity, social class, role within an organization, age, religion, sexual orientation, physical ability, and other group identities (Borkowski 2011, p. 15). Good communication skills among nurses in dealing with diversity is a big factor for effective management. In the cycle of effective management that includes planning and preparing, listening and obs erving, assessment and decision making, questioning and probing, giving feedback, and reflection and evaluation, the nurse, oftentimes, experiences vulnerability, criticism, hostility and success which calls for assertive sense to meet all these challenges (Darley 2002, p. 4). Assertiveness comprises respect for other people, self-respect or self-esteem, self-awareness, and effective, clear and consistent communication. Assertive communication is the key to communicating important messages to others that helps individuals to stand up for their rights, and when appropriate, the rights of others (the patient’s rights with the nurse acting as the patient advocate) (Sully & Dallas 2005, p. 94). Being assertive helps a person to avoid the feeling of guilt, anger, resentment, confusion, and loneliness, which leads to a more satisfying life (Zerwekh & Claborn 2006, p. 264). It is also important to note that assertiveness can also be projected through nonverbal communication. Accordi ng to Videbeck (2010, p. 107) nonverbal communication is the behavior a person exhibits while delivering verbal content which includes facial expression, eye contact, space, time, boundaries, and body movements. It conveys truthfulness because it involves the unconscious mind acting out emotions related to the verbal content, the situation, the environment, and the relationship between the speaker and the listener (Videbeck 2010, p. 108). In addition to effective communication, the nurse-patient relationship in health care setting is often at the interpersonal level, between two people only, in order to establish a therapeutic relationship that will benefit the client, even when the contact is brief. A communication can be therapeutic if it is client-focused, purposeful, and time limited, where the nurse comes to know and respond to the client as a unique person and the client comes to trust the nurse. In this therapeutic relationship, the nurse is sensitive to the client’s f eelings and needs, where both of them communicate comfortably with each other in times of intimate/sensitive nursing care or emotional significance (Funnell, Koutoukidis, & Lawrence 2009, p. 446). The nurse utilizes the â€Å"use of self† where he or she consciously and in full awareness uses his or her own self to establish relatedness and to structure nursing interventions. Because of the nature of nurse-patient interaction in the course of nursing care

Consciousness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Consciousness - Essay Example This is disturbing only if we assume that states of consciousness are mutually exclusive. Insofar as the same subject can experience different forms of consciousness (dreams and waking reality) they need not be mutually exclusive; rather, the fear is that a totally different worldview, and therefore a totally different mode of operating in the world, may be appropriate. For example, it would be unsettling if someone managed to convince us that feudalism is the correct worldview and therefore the correct modus operandi. Our defence of the current worldview (industrial capitalism) would be motivated not only by apprehensions of the alteration in our individual condition (from factory-owner to serf) but perhaps even more by our belief in the props (e.g. belief in free speech and free enterprise) of the current worldview. Our values and beliefs are ultimately determined by our social existence; our knowledge of the world is based on our social relations and conditions. The thesis he posited in contradistinction to Rene Descartes' "Cogito ergo sum" and which is central to Karl Marx's body of work is that "It is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social existence that determines their consciousness" (Critique of Political Economy 2). Existence itself does not depend on consciousness, much less on meta- consciousness; neither does life or productivity depend on consciousness. Rather, given a certain social structure and an individual's relations to it, subjective consciousness arises from physical reality. Physical reality encompasses everyday material activity (Burke 3), which is determined by the configuration of the individual or socioeconomic class in the current relations of production. An early 21st century American farmer's consciousness arises from the sum of all the activities and relationships he enters as a farmer (planting with a seed-drill, selling his grain to a corporate miller, buying seeds from a transnational biotechnology giant); it is different from the consciousness of the miller or the biotech company, and also from that of a farmer in Soviet Russia. It is different and unique not only because of his position in a salient mode of production (industrial capitalism versus socialism), but also, and equally importantly, because of the non-economic institutions that reflect and propagate that mode of production. Thus the early 21st century American farmer's consciousness is determined also by the media, the church, the system of education, the family - in short, by all that can be summed up as 'culture.' Althusser calls these cultural institutions the Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) - in contrast to the Repressive State Apparatuses (Althusser 3) which operate by direct force (law, police, army). The ISAs grow up on the base of the mode of production, reflect it, and reinforce it; they represent the ideology of the dominant mode of production. This is true of every human society under every mode or production: it can be understood, not as a conspiracy (Burke 4), but as reflections in ideology of the mode of production. By reflecting the mode of production, ideology also propagates it: every time the status quo is mirrored in culture (e.g. in advertisements or

Importance of Expenditure on Education for Economic Growth

Importance of Expenditure on Education for Economic Growth REVIEW OF LITERATURE THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL PERSPECTIVE Introduction Education is recognized as a critical input for the holistic development of the economy. Further, the elementary education plays a very leading role in acquiring larger positive externalities to the society. The provision of elementary education is one of the central responsibilities of the government. Many economic theories also suggest substantial role for the government in providing of basic education. All states in India have undertaken the responsibility of providing elementary education to their citizens. Voluminous government expenditure was increased on education across the states, but there is no significant achievement among the states in terms of educational outcomes. This chapter makes an attempt to review the available literature to understand the theoretical linkages of development and problems involved. The review of literature very helpful in understanding the research problems and explore the research gap and identify the ways that lead to solve the problem. A: Theoretical Models of Public Expenditure on Education Review of literature is divided into two parts. The first part represents the theoretical literature on financing of education, public good discussion, externalities involved with education and government intervention in the provision of education in the system. The role of education in economic development and important factors influencing on productivity and externalities involved also discussed here. The second part describes empirical studies on relationship between education and economic growth, inter-state variation in educational performance, efficiency of education system and factors influencing educational expenditure. Finance is commonly referred as providing funds for commercial activities. Public finance includes both public revenue and public expenditure, which plays an important role in influencing the other variables in an economy. Public expenditure is referred as the expenses incurred by the Government for the maintenance of the government responsibility and to stimulate the welfare of the society. Financing is an economic activity of the government to provide and manage necessary resources for satisfying the needs of the people. Education is not a pure public good, because in certain situations education might violate the principle characteristics of the public good such as non-rival and non-excludability. But education in general or elementary education in particular is considered as social good or collective good, which produces various positive externalities and social advantages to the society. Several economists have supported public expenditure on education for providing better educational opportunities in the society based on the argument that expenditure on education impacts economic development positively. During the ancient period most of the countries were following the laissez faire policy, where market forces play dominant role in adjustment of the economy. The role of the state was limited. Even under laissez-faire policy, the Government was expected to perform certain functions. According to the father of economics, Adam Smith (1937)[1] who provided a broad platform to laissez faire policy, the government has three important functions. They are Protection of society from foreign invasion. Maintenance of law and order and justice in society. The correction and maintains of public works such as educational institutions for the instructions of the people. Smith greatly emphasized the role of public finance and emphasized the need for providing public services to the poor to live and maintain their human dignity. J.S. Mill (1848) is another well known classical economist supported Adam Smiths laissez faire policy in administration of the government. He purposefully divided the functions of the government in laissez faire into Ordinary and Optional functions. The ordinary functions are defence, maintenance of law and order and other functions essential for the maintenance of the system. On the other hand the Optional functions such as education, health, family welfare and others have positive impact on economic growth the long run. In his argument he also encourage government role in advancement of public expenditure because Individuals are unable to evaluate the utility of certain goods, Lack of foresight may prevent individuals from consuming the valuable goods. Monopoly power or high prices necessitate government intervention in the provision of primary education. For the first time Adolph Wagner[2] (1835–1917) has commented on increasing state activities and through his experiment he found a positive relationship between public expenditure and economic growth among the selected countries. He postulated that when economy moves towards higher economic development path, public expenditure of the state also increases. The increasing public expenditure contributes to economic growth in various ways. In contrary, Peacock and Wiseman[3] (1967) argued that the natural course of advancement and structural change in the economy, leads to constant and systematic expansion in the public expenditure. According to them public expenditure in the system will not continuously increase. It depends on the shocks and stimulus response in the society. The Voluntary Exchange Theory was developed by Knut Wicksell (1896), Eric Lindahl ( ), Howard Bowen (1948)[4] and Musgrave (1939)[5]. It suggests that the resources in public sector should also allocate in the same manner as in such a manner to their allocation in the market with its price system. Through this theory they argued for tax collection and public spending for improving the welfare of the people. Dalton[6] postulated the public expenditure theory (1967) and according to him maximum satisfaction can be yield by striking a balance between public revenue and public expenditure by the government. According to him economic welfare is achieved when Marginal Social Sacrifices (MSS) due to imposition of taxes is equal to Marginal Social Benefit (MSB) due to government spending. Prof. Pigou argued that net social benefit (NSB) is maximized in the equilibrium condition of MSS = MSB. Public Expenditure and Decentralization Since the SSA adopted decentralized model in government spending on education, theories relating to the public expenditure, decentralization and governance are reviewed. Fiscal decentralization theorem (Oates, 1972) states that sub central governments have a comparative advantage in providing public services due to heterogeneity preferences of the people residing in different jurisdiction. He strongly argued for the decentralization in the administration and performing the functions. According to him decentralization will bring good governance at the local level and satisfy more human wants through effective public expenditure. Public expenditure and Distribution Dreze and Sen (1989) propounded public support led strategies. According to them the holistic development of the system is possible only where each and every individual has a good standard of living. For better standard of living and for tracing number of activities, they strongly argued for the educational attainment. Apart from its intrinsic importance, education serves certain instrumental roles in ensuring the freedom of a person, which not only guarantees personal gains but also possesses social ramifications including empowering the disadvantaged and reducing inequality. Certain public service such as education, health, sanitation, family welfare, rural development and others are required particularly for the development of marginalized sections. In this regard, the government investment on social sector is essential for receiving the double benefit to the economy. Samuelsons Theory of Public good The first place in defining the concept of public good belongs to Paul A. Samuelson (1955)[7]. Samuelson consider as the establisher of theory of public good. He made distinguish between public good and private good. The public good as the good, which brings benefits for members of the society as a whole and the consumption of the Public good doesnt proclaim the consumption of the other person. In Indian context provision of elementary education is a right of children between the age group of six to fourteen years, therefore elementary education consider as public good. In this regard Samuelsons argument in the provision of public good (elementary education) is justifiable. Non-rivalry and non-exclusion are two important characteristics of public good; education in general a good only obligatory education can meet the characteristics of public good. The elementary education is fulfilled the characteristics of public good and the consumption of this good does not reduce the consumptio n of other good. All these reasons emphasized the government role in public expenditure in the system. Milton Freidman (1995) published his book entitled The role of government; in that book he postulated the role of government intervention in the provision of education. He positively argued that the government intervention in public good based on strong following reasons; Capital market imperfection Incomplete infrastructure Possibility to create a monopoly Existence of positive externalities Friedman, M. (1955): The Role of Government. In: Solo, R.A, Economics and the public interest. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1955, 123-144. He propounded and accepted the approach of efficiency in the allocation of public goods. It shows fundamental difference between the allocation of public and private good based on micro economic principle. Prof. A.C. Pigou established the ability to pay theory for the determination of optimum level of public expenditure. He explained that the resources should be allocated among different uses and expenditure should be incurred in different uses in such a form that the marginal utility obtained from each different use is same. The government sector would grow with increasing level of National income. According to him if a community were literally a unitary being, with the government as its brain, expenditure should be pushed in all direction as increases of the National income. Further Prof. Pigou observed that simple marginal rule of optimization implied on increasing public sector with increasing wealth, the optimum amount of public goods is likely to raise. Justification for State Intervention in Education Some of the justifications for state intervention in education sector are as follows Education is recognized as a social good, but through the Right to Education Act (RtE) Elementary education is recognized as a public good, where it is the responsibility of government and parents to provide certain level of education. People could ignorant about the advantages/benefits/values of the education, so they have no concern in educating their pupils. The imperfect market and asymmetric information in developing and developed economies make poor people to still consider education expenditure as a consumption rather than investment expenditure. Market mechanism is mainly determined by the demand for and supply of the product. But in the case of education which is a social good, the marginal cost of additional education unit is zero and its consumption is indivisible in nature. These factor causes market failure in the market for investment in Education. Scholars like (Vaizy 1962; Blaug 1965; Levin 1987; Tomilnson1986; Musgrave 1959; Tilak 1999 and others) have strongly supported the state intervention in provision of elementary education. Contribution of Education to Economic Growth: Theoretical perspective The role of education in development has been recognized since the days of Plato. He argued that the education has high economic value; therefore a huge part of communitys wealth must be invested on education. Education helps the society by enabling them to participate actively in the development process. But, a major contribution to the discussion on relationship between education and economic growth was first made by Adam Smith (1776), followed by the subsequent contributions by the classical and neo-classical economists until Alfred Marshall. Marshall (1890) emphasized that, â€Å"The most valuable of all capital is that invested in human beings’. Further he also states that, Knowledge is our most powerful engine of production. It enables us to moderate nature and force her to satisfy our wants†. Education is one of the most important components in capacity building. It provides a base for making a person capable of acquiring skills and becoming self-sustainable. Kuznets’s study of American economy (Kuznets, 1955) shows the significant contribution of ‘residual factor’ to economic growth. A study on agriculture of 31 countries shows that four years of elementary education makes a farmer more productive than the farmer who has no education at all. I n another study of 88 countries for the period 1960-63 and 1970-73, it was found that an increase in literacy rates from 20 to 30 per cent contributed to increase in real GDP between eight to sixteen per cent. Personal earning and education have also been found correlated (UNDP, 1992). The significance of an adequately educated and technically trained manpower has been specifically recognized in economic literature since the middle of fifties when research studies in the economics of education and growth, pioneered by endogenous growth models propounded by Solow (1957), Schultz (1961) and Denison (1962). They highlighted the role of the ‘residual factor’, which mainly implied technology, learning, education and health. in contributing to economic growth (OECD, 1963). For many years, the proposition that educational expansion promotes and in some cases even determines the rate of growth of overall Gross National Product (GNP) remained unquestioned. Amazing statistics and numerous studies in the World has revealed that the growth of the nation was not due to the growth of physical capital but that of human capital that was the principal source of economic progress (Denison, 1962). In the classical school of economic doctrine, later economists considered education as an effective tool measure for population control (Malthus, 1966), achieving social justice (Ricardo, 1971) and civilized development of the society (Senior, 1939). Thus in eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century, education considered as a means for bringing about improvement in purchasing power of labour force, economic welfare and social peace (Mill, 1909). In the Neo-Classical school of economic thought, education was considered as a strong source of human capital formation and an effective source to increase the income stream (Fisher, 1929). Tilak (1989) argued that Education not only ensures economic growth with equity but also has positive externalities associated with it, which make the public financing of education imperative. There are some arguments for the complementarity in public and private expenditure on the grounds of equity. The benefits that accrue to the individual in terms of higher earnings are a reason why the individual should pick up a part of the cost. If we look at the state as a supplier of education and the individual as a buyer of it, then investments by both appear to be complementary; and this may be the best model on grounds of equity. Hence, the right balance between public and private expenditures is crucial to the success of any educational policy or programme (Psacharapoulos and Woodhall 1985; Majumdar 1983). Conclusion The above discussion reveals the importance of expenditure on education for the growth of the economy and also noted the growing perception that the greater relevance to the developing countries. But in the current atmosphere of growing scrutiny of the nature of state expenditures, whether education is to be treated as a public or a private good, and whether expenditure on education is to be treated as consumption or investment need to be understood correctly. If it is seen as consumption good, that is, private in nature, then the market mechanism may be regarded as the most effective means of ensuring its adequate supply. On the other hand the state expenditure on education must be reduced to increase investment in other areas of greater importance. However, education not only offers private monetary as well as non-monetary benefits to its consumers but also has externalities associated with it, which confer benefits to society at large, even to those who have not had any education. Therefore the government should take major responsibility in providing education opportunities of its citizens. [1] Smith, Adam (1937): An enquiry in to the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations, (Edwin Cannan eds.), The Modem Library, New York, 1937, P. 423 [2] Wagner, Adolph (1958): Three Extracts on Public Finance in R. A Musgrave and Allen Peacock eds., Classics in the Theory ofpublic Finance, Mcmillan, New York, 1958, PP. 1-16. [3] Peacock, T. Alan and Jack Wiseman (1967): The Growth of Public Expenditure in the Untied Kingdom, Allen and Urwin, London, (llnd Edition) 1967. [4] Bowen, R. Howard (1948): Toward Social Economy, New York, Rinehart (1948) [5] Musgrave, R.A (1938): The Voluntary Exchange Theory of Public Economy. The Quarterly Journal of EconomicsFebruary (1938)53(2):213-237. [6] Dalton, Hugh (1967): Principles of Public Finance, Augustus M. Kelley Publishers, New York, 1967, PP. 5-7 [7] Samuelson, A. Paul (1954): The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure. Review of Economics and Statistics, November 1954, pp. 387-389.

The Most Suitable Material for a Backpackers Towel :: Backpacking Towels Essays

The Most Suitable Material for a Backpacker's Towel Chemistry: Data Analysis for the most suitable material for a backpacker’s towel. Method ====== In groups, we tested three different types of material (named pale blue, dark blue and brown) to find out which one would be more suitable as a backpacker’s towel. The criteria that would make a good backpacker’s towel would be aspects such as a low density, high absorpancy, rapid drying etc. We weighed the fabric before wetting it and weighing it again. We then hung it on some suspended string and let a rotating fan dry them for fifteen minutes. After this time was up, we weighed the materials again in order to work out the drying rate, the absorpancy and the amount of water lost. We then recorded our results in a table (displayed further on) and analysed these to come to a conclusion. The formulas I used were as follows: Absorbency – wet towel mass – dry towel mass/dry towel mass Water Lost – Wet mass – Dry mass Drying Rate – (Water Lost/Time [15]) x 60 to give [g/hr] Density – Mass Dry/Area to give [g/cm squared] Interpretation ============== Part of the criteria that adds to what makes a backpacker’s towel is a high absorbency. The graph shows that the Pale Blue fabric had the highest absorbency and no anomalies, indicating accurate results. The least absorbent fabric is the brown. The Pale blue fabric absorbency ranges from 2.1 to 4.2. The Dark Blue fabric’s absorbency ranges from 1.7 to 3.2 with one higher anomaly and the brown fabric’s absorbency ranges from 1 to 2.9, with one higher anomaly. What also makes a good backpacker’s towel is rapid drying, i.e. a high drying rate. The fabric with the highest drying rate is, again, the pale blue one. The ranges I have devised on both graphs do not include the anomalies, and I will go further into this in my evaluation. The pale blue data for drying rate shows a very high anomaly and a very low one, with the data taken into consideration ranging from 14 to 52.5. The Dark Blue fabric ranges from 12.5 to 39.5, with two higher anomalies and the brown fabric ranges from 18.5 to 42.5 with 1 anomaly. To summarise, the brown fabric had the lowest absorbency, then the dark blue and then the pale blue. The dark blue fabric had the lowest drying rate, then the brown fabric and then the pale blue fabric. To conclude, the pale blue fabric was identified, from interpreting my graphs, as the best fabric for a backpacker’s towel, so at this point the pale blue fabric would probably be better that the dark blue and